Church Reform and Religious Enthusiasm in late 11th-early 12th century Essay

Church Reform and Religious Enthusiasm in late 11th-early 12th century - Essay Example instituted was to ensure that the Church became the sole focus of all individuals in Western Europe, so that it could not only enforce its authority over the whole of Christendom, but it could also be the main arbiter between the diverse secular rulers who ruled the principalities and kingdoms of Europe. One of the most controversial issues to come about because of these reforms was lay investiture, which developed because of the determination of the Church to ensure that there was a complete removal of secular influence on clerical appointments. It was believed that lay investiture had a corrupting influence on the Church and that it was the reason why the Church had moved away from its original spiritual nature to one which was almost completely immersed in secular interests. Thus, while in the short-term the ban in lay investiture promoted the Church’s power, in the long-term, it led to the erosion of this power as powerful monarchs came to disregard the authority of the po pe. The lay investiture controversy that came about as a result of the Gregorian reforms has come to be considered as a major turning point not only in the history of the Church, but also that of Europe as well. This is because it led to a situation where the Church chose to take up the authority, which had essentially been usurped by monarchs for centuries. Lay investiture involved the practice of secular rulers conferring clerical titles to individuals without necessarily having to seek the approval of the papacy.2 It is essential to note that during the medieval period, monarchs often had almost absolute authority over the church in their domains and they used this authority to ensure that the Church did their bidding, especially through the appointment of either their relatives or strong supporters into powerful positions within it.3 Thus, archbishops, bishops, and even abbots and abbesses were often the relatives of the lay rulers to whom they owed their first loyalty before their

Managerial Decision Making Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Managerial Decision Making - Research Paper Example Managerial Decision Making Decision making is the procedure of identifying opportunities, problems, and solutions to these problems or opportunities. Making decisions involves effort, before and after the actual choice. Decision making occurs at all levels of a business. Frequently, the board of directors makes strategic decisions regarding investment and the course of future growth of a company, among others. Managers can make the tactical decisions regarding how their own department can contribute most effectively to the overall company objectives. Ordinary employees are also expected to make decisions regarding conduct of their own responsibilities, responses to customers and enhancements to business practice. There are two types of decision making; programmed and non-programmed decision making (Richard & Dorothy, 2010). Programmed Decision Making According to Andrew (2011), programmed decisions are made for routine, recurring for well-structured situations using predetermined dec ision rules. These rules normally apply prior experience or practical knowledge about what works in a certain situation. Programmed decisions are resolutions that have been made numerous times in the past; managers have developed guidelines or rules to be applied when certain situations are anticipated to occur. According to Richard & Dorothy (2010), programmed decisions are made to ensure smooth running of the organizational activities. For example, McDonald’s Corporation inventory manager will decide to order certain goods when the company is running out of stock. Few programmed decisions are structured to eliminate individual judgment. In programmed decision making, there are no errors in the decisions since it is routine, and managers normally have the information needed; to create guidelines and rules to be followed by others. Lower level managers are essentially confronted by repetitive and familiar problems; therefore, they typically rely on programmed decisions, such as standard operating procedures. In most cases, lower level managers deal with well-structured problems. If lower level managers come across ill structured problems, they pass on these problems to senior managers in the organizational hierarchy. Similarly, senior managers pass down well structured problems to their subordinates so that they handle more problematic issues. In programmed decision making there is little threat and ambiguity involved, the decision maker is certain on the consequences of his or her actions, pertaining to a certain issue (Andrew, 2011). Non-programmed Decision Making Non-programmed decisio